Role of Youth in Environment Protection

CHAPTER 20 – WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT I. II. III. IV. Introduction Progress, 1996-2000 Prospects, 2001-2005 Conclusion LIST OF TABLES Table 20-1 Table 20-2 Table 20-3 Table 20-4 Employment Distribution By Gender Within Sectors, 1995 And 2000 Employment Distribution By Sector And Gender,1995 And 2000 Employment Distribution By Occupation And Gender, 1995 And 2000 R&D Personnel By Gender And Qualification, 1998 Chapter Chapter 20 Women and Development Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl 8 an Malaysia PlanMalaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 556 20 I. WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION 20. 01 Women constitute an important pool of resource that can be mobilized to achieve the national development agenda. Through the continuous efforts of the Government in providing an enabling environment during the Seventh Plan period, women continued to participate in and contribut e towards the social and economic development of the country. 20. 02 During the Eighth Plan period, efforts will continue to be undertaken to enhance the role, position and status of women to ensure their participation as equal partners in national development.Women will be provided with the skills and knowledge to cope with the challenges of globalization and fulfil the needs of the knowledge-based economy. II. PROGRESS, 1996-2000 20. 03 During the Seventh Plan period, women continued to make significant contributions in various fields of national development through greater participation in the economy. This was made possible through the further operationalization of the National Policy for Women and its Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women, which included the implementation of gender-sensitive and awareness training programmes.In addition, the removal of legal and institutional constraints that inhibited the participation of women in the development process further facilit ated the involvement of women. Population, Labour Force and Employment 20. 04 Based on the 2000 Population Census, about 48. 9 per cent or 11. 4 million of the total population were women. The age-structure of the female Chapter 20 557 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan Ma population was similar to that of the male, with 52. 4 per cent of the female population in the age-group 24 years and below.The Census also revealed that due to the improved female life expectancy, the proportion of the female population in the 65 to 74 years age-group increased from 3. 0 per cent in 1991 to 4. 3 per cent in 2000. 20. 05 Although 48 per cent of women were in the working age population of 15-64 years, they only accounted for a third of the labour force. Female labour force participation registered an increase, from 43. 5 per cent in 1995 to 45. 8 per cent in 1997, but declined to 44 per cent in 1998 due to the economic downturn. W ith the economic recovery, this rate subsequently increased to 44. per cent in 2000. 20. 06 Female employment in the mining and quarrying sector experienced the largest decline of 4. 9 per cent, between 1995 and 2000, followed by the agriculture, forestry, livestock and fishing sector, which recorded a decline of 1. 8 per cent during the same period, as shown in Table 20-1. Various efforts were undertaken to assist these women to re-enter the job market, including the implementation of training programmes to encourage them to venture into small businesses as well as retraining, and the identification and placement of these women in alternative jobs. 0. 07 Overall, the manufacturing sector absorbed the largest share of employed women accounting for 27. 3 per cent in 2000, consistent with the expanding opportunities in the sector. Another sector that recorded high female employment is the wholesale and retail trade, hotel and restaurants, as shown in Table 20-2. 20. 08 Improvements we re recorded in the occupational structure, with more women moving into higher-paying occupations during the Plan period. The proportion of women in the professional and technical category increased from 12. 7 per cent in 1995 to 13. per cent in 2000, while the proportion of women in the administrative and managerial category recorded an increase of 0. 4 per cent during the same period, as shown in Table 20-3. The share of women employed as agriculture workers declined from 16. 6 per cent in 1995 to 14. 8 per cent in 2000, consistent with the overall decline in total employment in the sector. Women were mainly employed as production and related workers, which accounted for 22. 6 per cent of total female employment in 2000. 558 TABLE 20-1 EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY GENDER WITHIN SECTORS, 1995 AND 2000 (%) 1995 2000Sector Male Female Male Female Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock & Fishing 71. 4 28. 6 73. 2 26. 8 Mining & Quarrying 82. 1 17. 9 87. 0 13. 0 Manufacturing 57. 2 42. 8 58. 9 41. 1 Construction 93. 5 6. 5 94. 0 6. 0 Electricity, Gas & Water 90. 4 9. 6 90. 5 9. 5 Transport, Storage & Communications 87. 9 12. 1 86. 9 13. 1 Wholesale & Retail Trade, Hotel & Restaurants 61. 3 38. 7 60. 7 39. 3 Finance, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services 60. 1 39. 9 60. 1 39. 9 Other Services 60. 0 40. 0 54. 7 45. 3 66. 1 33. 9 65. 5 34. 5 Total TABLE 20-2 EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY SECTOR AND GENDER, 995 AND 2000 (%) 1995 2000 Sector Male Female Male Female 21. 6 16. 9 20. 2 14. 1 0. 5 0. 2 0. 4 0. 1 Manufacturing 20. 2 29. 4 20. 6 27. 3 Construction 11. 3 1. 5 12. 1 1. 5 0. 9 0. 2 0. 7 0. 1 Agriculture, Forestry, Livestock & Fishing Mining & Quarrying Electricity, Gas & Water Transport, Storage & Communications 6. 2 Finance, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services 1. 7 6. 1 1. 7 16. 6 Wholesale & Retail Trade, Hotel & Restaurants 20. 5 18. 1 22. 3 4. 5 5. 7 17. 2 27. 1 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Chapter 20 559 5. 6 24. 0 100. 0 Total 4. 3 18. 4 Other ServicesMalaysia P lan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan Ma TABLE 20-3 EMPLOYMENT DISTRIBUTION BY OCCUPATION AND GENDER, 1995 AND 2000 (%) 1995 2000 Occupation Category Male Female Male Female Professional, Technical & Related Workers 8. 4 12. 7 8. 9 13. 5 Administrative & Managerial Workers 3. 9 1. 8 4. 7 2. 2 Clerical & Related Workers 7. 5 17. 5 7. 1 17. 5 10. 5 11. 6 11. 1 12. 1 9. 4 14. 4 9. 5 17. 4 Agriculture Workers 21. 9 16. 6 20. 4 14. 8 Production & Related Workers 38. 3 25. 4 38. 4 22. 6 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. Sales & Related Workers Service Workers Total 20. 09 Various measures were undertaken to improve female participation in the labour market. The Employment Act 1955 was amended in 1998, which among others, provided for flexible working hours and empowered the Minister of Human Resources to make rules on statutory benefits to be paid to part-time workers proportionate to that of full-time employees. This amendment permitted wome n, especially housewives, to be gainfully employed in part-time employment, while allowing them the flexibility to meet their family obligations.In an effort to allow women in the public sector to care for their newborn and to encourage breastfeeding, as of May 1998, maternity leave up to 60 days was allowed for a maximum of up to five children. In addition, provisions for tax deductions were provided to employers for the establishment of child-care centres near or at the workplace. Employers were also encouraged to provide facilities such as proper housing, transport and healthcare for the benefit of rural migrants, the majority of whom were women. Educational Attainment 20. 0 An important factor that contributed towards the social and economic advancement of women was the huge investments in educational facilities 560 accompanied by the provision of equal access to educational opportunities. Female primary and secondary school enrolment in local public institutions reflected the g ender ratio in the country. At the primary and secondary levels, enrolment of female students was about half of the total enrolment, while at the upper secondary level, female students accounted for about 66 per cent of total enrolment in 2000.Intake of female students into public universities expanded significantly from 50 per cent in 1995 to 55 per cent in 2000. 20. 11 With regard to preference for courses, female dominance in the arts streams continued to be prevalent accounting for 65 per cent of total enrolment in the arts and humanities courses in 2000. Females also made further inroads into science and technical courses. Female enrolment in the sciences in institutions of higher learning accounted for 60 per cent, while in the technical field it was 30 per cent in 2000.Skills and Entrepreneur Development 20. 12 Specific skills and entrepreneur training programmes were implemented to enable women to improve themselves and take advantage of the opportunities in the job market. In this regard, courses in areas such as business, organizational and financial management were implemented. Skills training programmes provided by the Centre for Instructor and Advanced Skills Training were expanded, resulting in an increase of 19. 4 per cent in the female enrolment between 1995 and 2000. 20. 3 With improved literacy and the changing needs of the rural community, courses that contributed towards the involvement of women in income-generating activities were also undertaken. Towards this end, extension services in the form of the provision of equipment, initial capital grants, advisory services and training in areas such as product processing, as well as leadership and motivation courses were conducted. 20. 14 Measures were undertaken to facilitate the involvement of women in business through the provision of easy access to capital. The Women Entrepreneurs Fund was established in 1998 with an allocation of RM10 million.A total of 12 projects amounting to RM9. 5 milli on was approved under the Fund. Through the Small Entrepreneur Fund, a total of about 6,000 women entrepreneurs obtained loans amounting to RM65 million. Chapter 20 561 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan Ma 20. 15 Various women entrepreneur and industry associations were formed, generally to serve as a platform for women entrepreneurs to establish networks and exchange information and experiences as well as to conduct training programmes, seminars, and workshops on motivation, leadership and entrepreneur development.The Women’s Institute of Management (WIM) offered skills training courses, particularly in the area of entrepreneurship as well as operated an on-line network called WIMNET that provided database search facilities to businesswomen around the world. In addition, the Institute of Women’s Advancement, the Federation of Women Entrepreneurs Association and the Association for Bumiputera Women En trepreneurs conducted courses and seminars in skills and entrepreneur development.A total of about 10,000 women benefited from these courses. Research and Development 20. 16 Women were actively involved in research and development activities during the Plan period. According to the 1998 National Survey of Research and Development, which covered research undertaken by government research institutions, institutions of higher learning and the private sector, women accounted for about a third of the total number of researchers with masters and bachelor degree qualifications, as shown in Table 20-4.In terms of research fields in the public sector, females were predominantly found in the medical and health and information sectors. TABLE 20-4 R&D PERSONNEL BY GENDER AND QUALIFICATION, 1998 (%) Phd Masters Bachelor Non-Degree Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female GRI1 29. 2 8. 0 38. 0 16. 4 14. 6 8. 5 11. 8 9. 2 2 39. 8 15. 0 15. 0 14. 0 9. 7 9. 0 14. 0 19. 6 7. 0 1. 0 13. 0 3. 6 43. 2 15. 0 36. 8 8. 6 76. 0 24. 0 66. 0 34. 0 67. 5 32. 5 62. 6 37. 4 IHL Private Sector Total Notes: 1 Refers to Government Research Institutions 2Refers to Institutions of Higher Learning 562 Health Status 20. 17 Women were equal recipients of the benefits of developments in the health sector. As such, the health status of women continued to register improvements during the Plan period. The average female life expectancy continued to improve from 74 years in 1995 to 74. 7 years in 2000 compared with 69. 3 years and 69. 9 years, respectively, for males. The maternal mortality rate, which is an indicator of the health status of women, remained low at 0. 2 per 1,000 live births during the Plan period. 20. 8 With the introduction of the Family Health Programme in 1996, women’s health was given emphasis from two perspectives, namely, the health of the family comprising maternal and child health, immunization, family planning, early detection of cancers and nutrition, as well as diseases affecting women with specific attention to human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). The maternal and child health programme, aimed at reducing maternal and infant mortality and morbidity, improving prenatal and antenatal healthcare and providing health and utrition education continued to be implemented. In addition, increased accessibility to safe delivery services contributed towards the achievement of a satisfactory maternal mortality rate. As a result, deliveries in the public sector health facilities increased from 85. 1 per cent in 1985 to 95. 3 per cent in 1999. Concerted efforts were also undertaken to widen the coverage of antenatal health care services resulting in 72 per cent of pregnant women having access to such services.The Government introduced the Nutrition Rehabilitation Programme for Pregnant Mothers in 1997 to further improve the health status of women through the provision of adequate nutrition, particularly women in t he low-income group. 20. 19 With longer life expectancy and to ensure that women are healthy and remain healthy in their old age, health education programmes, seminars and workshops on healthy lifestyles, nutrition and the importance of regular medical examinations were introduced by the public and private sectors.In view of the fact that women, especially young women, are in the high-risk category in terms of vulnerability to AIDS, greater emphasis was given towards providing information on AIDS awareness and education. Despite these efforts, the percentage of women with HIV infection increased from 4. 3 per cent in 1995 to 5. 1 per cent in 1999. A programme, specifically for pregnant mothers infected with HIV, was also introduced at all antenatal clinics. Chapter 20 563 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan MaPoverty among Female-headed Households 20. 20 Recognizing that increasing poverty among women is a world-wide phenomenon, various efforts were undertaken by the Government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to reduce the incidence of poverty among women. These included the provision of micro-credit facilities to about 22,850 women through Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia to facilitate their involvement in small businesses and training programmes to assist single mothers to obtain employment. Despite these efforts, the incidence of poverty among female-headed households increased from 15. per cent or 585,688 households in 1997 to 16. 1 per cent or 588,554 households in 1999. Supportive Legislation 20. 21 During the period, efforts to further enhance the status of women continued to be undertaken. Existing regulations were reviewed and new ones enacted to protect the rights and dignity of women in both public and private life. In recognition of the importance of women’s contribution to the labour force, the amendment of the Employment Act 1955 encouraged more women to join the labour for ce.With the increased participation of women in the labour force, the existence of a healthy working environment is crucial. Towards this end, in 1999 the Government introduced a code of ethics for the prevention of sexual harassment at the workplace. This code, although applicable to both men and women, contains specific provisions to protect women in the workplace. In addition, women taxpayers, whose husbands had no taxable income, were provided taxable relief similar to that available to a male taxpayer whose wife had no taxable income. 20. 2 To enhance the capability and capacity of syariah courts, including in the handling of issues pertaining to Muslim women, the Government initiated a review of the organization of syariah courts in the country. Consequently, the Department of Syariah Judiciary was established in 1997, among others, aimed at ensuring uniformity among states in the judgement of cases pertaining to Islamic Family Law. During the period, five states, namely, Mela ka, Negeri Sembilan, Perlis, Pulau Pinang and Selangor as well as the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur implemented the Islamic Family Law.With this implementation, Muslim women were provided with better protection. 564 20. 23 Various efforts were undertaken to further protect the rights and dignity of women. The Women and Girls Protection Act 1973 and the Child Protection Act 1991 were reviewed and streamlined into the Child Act 2000. In addition, recognizing the role of women in caring for their families, the Guardianship of Infants Act 1961 was amended in 1999 to allow joint guardianship of children in matters relating to immigration and registration.In implementing this amendment, the Government, in 2000, also allowed mothers to sign all documents involving their underage children. National Machinery for the Advancement of Women 20. 24 The national machinery for the advancement of women in Malaysia comprises the Government, the private sector and NGOs, working in tandem towards the common objective of improving the status of women. Recognizing the need to further enhance the effectiveness of the national machinery, the Women’s Affairs Department at the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development was transferred to the Prime Minister’s Department in 1999.To enable more effective implementation of the National Policy for Women, the Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women was introduced to all public and private sector agencies to be used as a guide in the planning and implementation of development programmes. In addition, gender sensitization training programmes continued to be implemented in the public sector and similar programmes were initiated in the private sector. 20. 5 During the period, the National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) continued to function as the coordinating, consultative and advisory body on women’s affairs by highlighting to the Government issues and concerns pertain ing to women. Measures were also undertaken to institute links with the grassroot through the establishment of women service centres at the state level and women’s affairs consultative committees at the state and district levels.During the Plan period, centres were established in the States of Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Sabah and Selangor, which provided various services such as counselling, legal assistance and temporary shelter for women in need. The consultative committees monitored the implementation and impact of programmes and projects for women and provided the necessary feedback for improved project formulation and implementation. 20. 26 NGOs played an important role in complementing the efforts of the Government in advancing the status of women.In addition to organizing courses in family health, legal literacy, entrepreneurial development and parenting skills, Chapter 20 565 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malays ia Plan Ma NGOs also implemented various activities to increase the knowledge and skills of women in the vocational and technical fields. Specific programmes were also introduced to assist single mothers in obtaining employment and caring for their families. NGOs also played the catalytic role in highlighting issues to further improve the status and rights of women.III. PROSPECTS, 2001-2005 20. 27 During the Eighth Plan period, efforts will continue to be undertaken to further enhance the role, position and responsibilities of women so as to increase their participation and involvement in the social and economic life of the country. In implementing the Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women, the Government will continue to ensure that strategies and programmes implemented are consistent with Malaysian values, religious beliefs and cultural norms. 20. 8 Taking cognizance of the changes in the global environment and the need to adjust to these changes, efforts will be undertaken to provide women with the skills and knowledge to cope with the twin responsibilities of family and career. Towards this end, the strategic thrusts for the future advancement of women will be: t increasing female participation in the labour market; t providing more education and training opportunities for women to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy and improve their upward mobility in the labour market; t enhancing women’s involvement in business; reviewing laws and regulations that inhibit the advancement of women; t improving further the health status of women; t reducing the incidence of poverty among female-headed households; t strengthening research activities to increase participation of women in development and enhance their well-being; and t strengthening the national machinery and the institutional capacity for the advancement of women. 566 Increasing Female Participation in the Labour Force 20. 29 Although women account for nearly half of the working ag e population, their participation in the labour force is relatively low.Various efforts will be undertaken to mobilize this available pool of resource, thus increasing the supply of labour and contributing towards enhancing the nation’s output. The private sector, being the largest employer, will be further encouraged to introduce the necessary support facilities such as establishing child-care centres as well as providing transportation and housing facilities for their women employees. In addition, the Employment Act 1955 will be amended to include new and flexible working arrangements such as teleworking, part-time work and job sharing, to enable women to integrate career with household duties.Providing More Education and Training Opportunities 20. 30 Women will be provided with more education and training opportunities to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy as well as to facilitate their upward mobility into higher-paying occupations. To encourage more women to pursue non-traditional fields of study such as science, engineering and vocational and technical education, career counselling programmes will be implemented to provide information and instill greater awareness among female students and parents regarding career opportunities in the professional and technical fields. 0. 31 With the need to increase knowledge and skills as well as move towards higher capital intensity, there will be a greater demand for highly and multiskilled workers. Women will thus be provided with more training opportunities to acquire new and advanced skills relevant to the needs of the industry. In addition, in response to the rapid changes in technology that requires constant upgrading of skills, women will be provided with increased opportunities for retraining.The private sector will also be encouraged to complement the efforts of the Government in providing more skills training opportunities for women, including in new technologies. 20. 32 Efforts will be u ndertaken to improve women’s access to information and communications technology (ICT). Formal and non-formal training in areas such as computer literacy and applications of ICT will be conducted jointly by the Government and NGOs, with special emphasis given to rural women. In addition, to enhance the effectiveness of the training programmes, efforts will be taken to ensure that software development is gender sensitive.Chapter 20 567 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan Ma Enhancing Women’s Involvement in Business 20. 33 Efforts to enhance women’s involvement in business will continue to be undertaken. Training in business-related areas such as marketing, accounting, budgeting and planning will be implemented by the Government and NGOs. Programmes will be implemented to enable women entrepreneurs to be more competitive in terms of production, product quality and design as well as packaging and la belling. In addition, the utilization of ICT in business will be emphasized.The Government will also continue to provide funds under the Women Entrepreneurs Fund to enable more women to participate in business. Through the implementation of gender sensitive strategies, more opportunities will be provided to women to increase their participation and involvement in business ventures. Reviewing Laws and Regulations 20. 34 Existing laws and regulations will be reviewed to eliminate provisions that discriminate or have adverse effects on women. Legislation that will be reviewed includes those pertaining to family law and the distribution of property for non-Muslims.The Government will study the feasibility of establishing family courts with a view towards ensuring that issues pertaining to the family are discussed and decisions made in a more conducive environment. Efforts will also be undertaken to ensure the effective enforcement and speedy implementation of court decisions, including decisions of syariah courts, so as to provide for the protection and welfare of women. In addition, steps will continue to be taken to ensure the implementation of Islamic Family Law in the remaining states. Improving the Health Status 20. 5 Emphasis will continue to be given to promoting women’s health and that of their families. Through the family health programme, special attention will be given to HIV and sexually-transmitted infection prevention, family planning, as well as the identification of factors causing non-communicable diseases such as cancers, mental illnesses and cardiovascular diseases. In view of the fact that women have longer life expectancy and to ensure that women remain healthy in their old age, specific health education programmes including the promotion of healthy lifestyles and nutrition will continue to be implemented. 68 20. 36 Recognizing the peculiarities of illnesses confronting women, such as osteoporosis and those related to reproductive healt h, and in an effort to provide higher quality healthcare for women, the Government will establish a special hospital for women. This hospital will be the national referral centre for women’s health and well-being. In addition, research on various aspects of women’s health will be undertaken, with emphasis on biomedical, socio-behavioural and clinical research. Reducing the Incidence of Poverty among Female-headed Households 20. 7 In view of the increasing number of female-headed households and the rising incidence of poverty among them, efforts will be undertaken to ensure that these women have the capacity and capability to care for their families. Towards this end, research on the difficulties faced by women as head of households as well as the differing impacts of poverty on women and men will be undertaken to assist in the development of relevant programmes and projects. A special programme aimed at reducing the incidence of poverty among female-headed households w ill also be formulated to improve their quality of life as well as that of their families.Strengthening Research Activities 20. 38 During the Plan period, emphasis will be given to strengthening research in specific areas that will contribute towards increasing the participation of women in national development and enhancing their well-being. Research will be undertaken in areas such as the involvement of women in science and technology and ICT, the welfare of women in the informal sector, the role and status of women in the workplace, mobility of women in the labour force and remunerations received, women and mental health, and difficulties faced by women as head of households.Findings from these activities will assist in the formulation of policies and programmes that will further promote the advancement of women. Strengthening the National Machinery and the Institutional Capacity 20. 39 The establishment of the Ministry for Women and Family Development will provide greater focus on issues relating to women as well as ensure the effective implementation and coordination of programmes for women and families. Chapter 20 569 Malaysia Plan Ma laysia Plan Malay 8 sia Plan Malaysia Plan Malaysia Pl an Malaysia Plan Malaysia Plan MaConsistent with the goals of the National Policy for Women, efforts will be undertaken to improve and strengthen the national machinery for the advancement of women. Towards this end, measures will be instituted to ensure greater coordination and collaboration in the implementation of activities for women. In addition, links with the grassroots will continue to be strengthened with the establishment of women service centres in the remaining 10 states. 20. 40 During the Plan period, various mechanisms will be instituted to enable women to participate in decision-making processes at all levels.This is to ensure the incorporation of the needs of women in the formulation of policies and the development of strategies and programmes for the fu rther advancement of women. Gender analysis training and sensitization for policy-makers and planners and programme implementors will continue to be implemented in the public and private sectors. Greater efforts will also be undertaken to ensure the systematic collection and compilation of gender disaggregated data to facilitate analysis, create awareness and formulate appropriate and effective follow-up action on gender issues. IV. CONCLUSION 0. 41 With the provision of equal access to healthcare as well as educational and training programmes and improved employment opportunities, women made advancements in various fields of development. During the Eighth Plan period, efforts will continue to further enhance the status of women as equal partners in development. Towards this end, the Government will provide the enabling environment and supportive mechanisms, including the implementation of gender sensitive programmes, to enable women to reach their full potential in the social and e conomic fields of development. 570

Assessment and Students Essay

Journal assessment Conclusion Reccomendation III. INTRODUCTION: Why do Assessment? Are you asking too little of your class? Are your students approaching your course as hurdlers, barely clearing required levels of performance? Or are they approaching your course like high jumpers, pushing themselves under your guidance to increasingly more challenging heights? If your students aren’t high jumpers, maybe it’s because you aren’t asking them to high jump. By using appropriate assessment techniques, you can encourage your students to raise the height of the bar. There is considerable evidence showing that assessment drives student learning. More than anything else, our assessment tools tell students what we consider to be important. They will learn what we guide them to learn through our assessments. Traditional testing methods have been limited measures of student learning, and equally importantly, of limited value for guiding student learning. These methods are often inconsistent with the increasing emphasis being placed on the ability of students to think analytically, to understand and communicate at both detailed and â€Å"big picture† levels, and to acquire lifelong skills that permit continuous adaptation to workplaces that are in constant flux. Moreover, because assessment is in many respects the glue that links the components of a course – its content, instructional methods, and skills development – changes in the structure of a course require coordinated changes in assessment. IV. RESEARCH (CONTENT) What is Assessment? Assessment is a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and acting upon data related to student learning and experience for the purpose of developing a deep understanding of what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experience; the process culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning. Huba and Freed, 2000 Key Points Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning Multiple methods Criteria and standards Evidence Students know, can do and understand It’s more than just collecting data Sequence in Preparing Instructionally Relevant Assessment INSTRUCTION Indicates the learning outcomes to be attained by students LEARNING TASK Specifies the particular set of learning task(s) to be assessed. ASSESSMENT Provides a procedure designed to measure a representative sample of the instructionally relevant learning tasks. Is there close agreement? What is the Assessment Process? AIMS ASSESSMENT ACTION ADJUSTMENT Importance of Assessment To find out what the students know (knowledge) To find out what the students can do, and how well they can do it (skill; performance) To find out how students go about the task of doing their work (process) To find out how students feel about their work (motivation, effort) What is Student Assessment for? *To help us design and modify programs to better promote learning and student success. To provide common definitions and benchmarks for student abilities that will enable us to act more coherently and effectively to promote student learning. *To provide feedback, guidance, and mentoring to students so as to help them better plan and execute their educational programs. *To provide improved feedback about student learning to support faculty in their work. Functions of Assessment Diagnostic: tell us what the student needs to learn Formative: tell us how well the student is doing as work progresses Summative: tell us how well the student did at the end of a unit/task What can be assessed? Student learning characteristics -Ability differences -Learning styles Student motivational characteristics -Interest -Self-efficacy -goal orientation Learning Content knowledge Ability to apply content knowledge Skills Dispositions and attitudes Performances Direct and Indirect Assessment Measures Direct methods ask students to demonstrate their learning while indirect methods ask them to reflect on their learning. Direct methods include objective tests, essays, case studies, problem solving exercises, presentations and classroom assignments. Indirect methods include surveys, interviews and student reflection and/or self-assessment essays. It is useful to include both direct and indirect assessment measures in your assessments. How should we assess? True –False Item Multiple Choice Completion Short Answer Essay Practical Exam Papers/Reports Projects Questionnaires Inventories Checklist Peer Rating Self Rating Journal Portfolio Observations Discussions Interviews Criteria In Choosing an Assessment Method It should be reliable. It should be valid. It should be simple to operate, and should not be too costly. It should be seen by students and society in general. It should benefit all students. Who should be involved in assessment? The teacher The student The student’s peer Administrator Parents What should we do with the information from our assessment? Use it to improve the focus of our teaching (diagnosis) Use it to focus student attention of strengths and weaknesses (motivation) Use it to improve program planning (program assessment) Use it for reporting to parents Classroom Assessment Paper and pencil assessments: Ask students to respond in writing to questions or problem -Item level: Assessing lower vs. higher skills -Knowledge vs. application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation -Authentic tasks e. . multiple choice, T/F, matching (recognition), short answer, essay (recall) Paper and Pencil Assessment Strengths -Can cover a lot of material reasonably well -Fair -Effective in assessing declarative knowledge of content – Easier to construct and administer than performance assessments Weaknesses -Require forethought and skill -Less effective in assessing procedural knowledge and creative think ing -Construction of good higher level recognition items is difficult -Recall items that do a good job of assessing higher level thinking (essay questions) are difficult to score. Performance Assessments – assessment that elicits and evaluates actual student performances Types of Performances: Products: drawings, science experiments, term papers, poems, solution to authentic problems Behavior: time trial for running a mile, reciting a poem, acting tryouts, dancing Performance assessments Strengths – Effective for assessing higher level thinking and authentic learning -Effective for assessing skill and procedural learning -Interesting and motivating for students Weaknesses -Emphasize depth at the expense of breadth Difficult to construct -Time consuming to administer -Hard to score fairly How can we assess student learning? Traditional assessment: assess student knowledge and skills in relative isolation from real world context. Traditional assessment practices reflect what students are able to recall from memory through various means, such as, multiple choice, true/false, fill in the blank, and matching questions. Authentic assessment: assess stu dents’ ability to use what they’ve learning in tasks similar to those in the outside world. Occurs when the authenticity of student learning has been observed. It requires information from a variety of source such as content work samples, observation during class activities, and conferences with students. Classroom Assessment Informal Assessment: teachers’ spontaneous, day to day observations of student performances. Examples Verbal -Asking questions -Listening to student discussions -Conducting student conferences Nonverbal -Observing -Task performances -On-and off-task behavior -student choices -student body language Informal Assessment Strengths -Facilitates responsive teaching -Can be done during teaching -Easy to individualize Weaknesses -Requires high level of teacher skill -Is vulnerable to -Bias -Inequities –Mistakes Classroom Assessment Formal assessment : assessment that is planned in advance and used to assess a predetermined content and/or skill domain. Strengths -allows the teacher to evaluate all students systematically on the important skills and concepts -helps teachers determine how well students are progressing over the entire year -provides useful information to parents and administrators. Portfolios A collection of student samples representing or demonstrating student academic growth. It can include formative and summative assessment. It may contain written work, journals, maps, charts, survey, group reports, peer reviews and other such items. Portfolios are systematic, purposeful, and meaningful collections of students’ work in one or more subject areas. Importance of Portfolios For Students Shows growth over time Displays student’s accomplishment Helps students make choices Encourages them to take responsibility for their work Demonstrates how students think Importance of Portfolios For Teachers Highlights performance-based activities over year Provides a framework for organizing student’s work Encourages collaboration with students, parents, and teachers Showcases an ongoing curriculum Facilitates student information for decision making Importance of Portfolios For Parents Offer insight into what their children do in school Facilitates communication between home and school Gives the parents an opportunity to react to what their child is doing in school and to their development Shows parents how to make a portfolio so they may do one at home at the same time Importance of Portfolios For Administrators Provides evidence that teacher/school goals are being met Shows growth of students and teachers Provides data from various sources What do portfolios contain? Three basic models: Showcase model, consisting of work samples chosen by the student. Descriptive model, consisting of representative work of the student, with no attempt at evaluation. Evaluative model, consisting of representative products that have been evaluated by criteria. Disadvantages of Portfolio Require more time for faculty to evaluate than test or simple-sample assessment. Require students to compile their own work, usually outside of class. Do not easily demonstrate lower-level thinking, such as recall of knowledge. May threaten students who limit their learning to cramming for doing it at the last minute. Rubric It is a scoring guide that seeks to evaluate a student’s performance based on the sum of a full range of criteria rather than a single numerical score. It is a working guide for students and teachers, usually handed out before the assignment begins in order to get students to think about the criteria on which their work will be judged. Rubrics are scoring criteria for Free-response Questions Scientific reports Oral or Power point presentations Reflections/Journals Essay Laboratory-based performance tests Article review or reactions Portfolios Many others Open-ended Question Concept Mapping It requires students to explore links between two or more related concepts. When making concept maps, they clarify in their minds the links they have made of the concepts and having visual representation of these links, they are better able to rearrange of form new links when new concepts are introduced. Laboratory Performance In this format students and teachers know the requirements in advance and prepare them. The teacher judges the student performance within a specific time frame and setting. Students are rated on appropriate and effective use of laboratory equipment, measuring tools, and safety laboratory procedures as well as a hands-on designing of an investigation. Inventories Diagnostic Inventories: Student responses to a series of questions or statements in any field, either verbally or in writing. These responses may indicate an ability or interest in a particular field. Interest Inventories: student responses to questions designed to find out past experience and or current interest in a topic, subject or activity. Classroom Assessment Presentation : a presentation by one student or by a group of students to demonstrate the skills used in the completion of an activity or the acquisition of curricular outcomes/expectations. The presentation can take the form of a skit, lecture, lab presentation, debate etc. Computers can also be used for presentation when using such software as Hyperstudio, Powerpoint or Corel presentations. Peer Evaluation : judgments by students about one another’s performance relative to stated criteria and program outcomes Journal Assessment This refer to student’s ongoing record of expressions experiences and reflections on a given topic. There are two types: one in which students write with minimal direction what he/she is thinking and or feeling and the other requires students to compete a specific written assignment and establishes restrictions and guidelines necessary to accurately accomplish the assignment. Journals can evolve different types of reflecting writing, drawing, painting, and role playing. REFLECTIVE JOURNAL What did I learn? How do I feel about it? What happened? SYNTHESIS JOURNAL How I can Use It? What I learned? What I Did? SPECULATION ABOUT EFFECTS JOURNAL What could happen because of this? What happened? V. CONCLUSION A fair assessment is one in which students are given equitable opportunities to demonstrate what they know and can do. Classroom assessment is not only for grading or ranking purposes. Its goal is to inform instruction by providing teachers with information to help them make good educational decisions. Assessment is integrated with student’s day-to-day learning experiences rather than a series of an end-of-course tests. Why link assessment with instruction? Better assessment means better teaching. Better teaching means better learning . Better learning means better students. Better students mean better opportunities for a better life. VI. RECCOMENDATION Specific assessment tools, listed below, are strongly recommended to faculty and department heads for their ability to provide useful information for accountability and, more importantly, to foster dialogue to improve student learning within courses. These three assessment tools are strongly recommended because they are concise and effective direct evaluations as opposed to indirect evaluations. Direct evaluations can be both formative (the gathering of information about student learning during the progression of a course or program, usually repeatedly, to improve the learning of those students) and summative (the gathering of information at the conclusion of the course, program or undergraduate career to improve learning or to meet accountability demands. ) 1. Rubrics:  These are the most flexible types of direct assessments and can be used to score any product or performance such as essays, portfolios, skill performances, oral exams, debates, project/product creation, oral presentations or a student’s body of work over the course of a semester. Since we are talking about assessing â€Å"official† course learning outcomes that are stated in course documents, all faculty teaching that course must agree on a detailed scoring system that delineates criteria used to discriminate among levels and is used for scoring a common assignment, product or performance or set of assignments, products or performances. Information can be obtained from the course document’s assignment and evaluation pages to help guide the creation of the rubric. Pros: †¢ Defines clear expectations. †¢ Can be used to score many kinds of assignments or exams †¢ Faculty define standards and criteria and how they will be applied Cons: †¢ Faculty must agree on how to define standards and criteria and how they will be applied 2. Common Final Exam or Common Capstone Project:  These direct assessment methods integrate knowledge, concepts and skills associated with an entire sequence of study in a course. Either use the same final exam for all sections offered in a course (commercially produced/standardized test or locally developed final exam) or require a culminating final project that is similar (using the same grading rubric to evaluate). Pros: †¢ Good method to measure growth over time with regard to a course †¢ Cumulative †¢ The data is more robust if all students complete the same assessment †¢ Provides an additional buffer between student learning performance and an individual instructor’s teaching performance Cons: Focus and breadth of assessment are important †¢ Understanding all of the variables to produce assessment results is also important †¢ May result in additional course requirements †¢ Requires coordination and agreement on standards 3. Embedded Test Questions:  Embed the same agreed upon questions that relate to the course’s student learning outcomes into the final exam for all sections of the course and analyze tho se results and/or embed the same agreed-upon requirements into the final project/assignment for all sections of the course and analyze those results. Pros: †¢ Good method to measure growth over time with regards to a course †¢ Cumulative †¢ The data is more robust if all students complete the same assessment †¢ Provides an additional buffer between student learning performance and an individual instructor’s teaching performance †¢ Embedded questions can be reported as an aggregate Cons: †¢ May result in additional course requirements †¢ Requires coordination and agreement on standards If some instructors embed and others do not, the data will be difficult to compare and analyze †¢ Separate analysis of embedded set of questions is required VII. REFERENCES https://www. google. com. ph/search? q=ASSESSMENT+TOOLS+PPT;rlz=2C1GTPM_enPH0537PH0537;aq=f;oq=assessment+tools+;aqs=chrome. 0. 59j57j61j60l2j0. 3437j0;sourceid=chrome;ie=UTF-8 http://www. slideshare. net/armovil/assessment-of-student-learning? from_search=2 Fulks, Janet, â€Å"Assessing Student Learning in Community Colleges†, Bakersfield College, 2004

Seventeenth-Century Art Royalty and Riches Essay

Seventeenth-Century Art Royalty and Riches - Essay Example The illusionistic style that had been developed presented a different angle to the viewer to deter from the usual pieces known to predict some societal events. Some of the paintings in the seventeenth century had been based on the Ostentatious Illusionism. The concept saw the application of an illusion style that had been meant to cause impressionism in the minds of the viewer. The concept saw inclusion of visual elements that cause an impression that saw critical elements that defined the composition. The seventeenth century paintings had been based on the aspect of visual illusion and distortion of elements to suit the provision of delivering a composition that contain the illusionistic elements (Stella 1986, p28). Moreover, Christianity had influenced the period and artists were under the authority of the church to create pieces that depicted the religious forms. The seventeenth century art had mostly been based on the two styles of illusionism and realism that saw the development of outstanding pieces mostly ceiling paintings that had been commissioned by the church. The style saw the influence in art across Europe, particularly in the Baroque period and the paintings by some famous Dutch artists. The style that had been dubbed Ostentatious illusionism saw a massive contribution to the development and creation of the seventeenth-century paintings and influenced various artists in differentiated ways. Baroque The seventeenth century witnessed the development of elements to derive the component of illusion to develop the known Baroque style. The period had been marked by the discoveries in the scientific technology and numerous religious developments that saw the enhancement of a style that held numerous techniques. The illusionism created in the Baroque era had been the response derived by the artists of the technique to develop the perception criteria (Stoichit?a? 1997, p117). Art pieces needed to hold more effects and meaning to the viewer and bear added l iteral definition. The artists managed to create forms that had structures meant to create an outstanding effect to the perception that meant the application of a unique illusionistic style. Within the baroque style, trompe l’oeil painting style had been developed to highlight the illusionistic effects. Within the Baroque style, the outstanding style that had been developed saw the development in the illusionistic ceiling paintings. In the style, the developed techniques saw illusion develop in the theme of di sotto in su and the renowned quadrata techniques of completion in paintings. With these forms, the style developed saw the inclusion of an outstanding perspective element that distorted the ceiling paintings to appear to have an extended dimension. The style saw the development of a three-dimensional illusion within a developed two-dimensional surface. The other illusionistic forms developed the perspective element and invention of trompe l’oeil that advanced the distortion element within paintings in the seventeenth century (Peucker 2007, p9). The style witnessed the increased definition of concepts to include an added meaning to the completion of works. The church grew more interested in the artistic influences and sought to incorporate illusion within the pieces created. The artists chose to adopt the illusion technique in Baroque to intrigue the viewer and enable the church to spread the needed

Knowledge managementl Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Knowledge managementl - Essay Example In this milieu an increasing number of companies are getting to recognize the fact that they cannot excel in everything connected to their business and delivery of products and services they are known in the market for and construction industry is one such industry where dependence relationships develop in networks with specialization clearly demarcating inputs into any project. Construction Industry has begun to realize that it makes sense to find sub-contractors for parts of their work and leverage on their work to roll out a finally bundled up product. Outsourcing of manufacturing can help companies concentrate of areas of competence whilst a the same time ensuring that the other related tasks are being attended to with necessary know how and skills. A lot of innovative skills are required in order to achieve successful networks of competence that deliver a high cost and long duration construction project. The innovation is almost needed at each point a problem is encountered in a complex construction project. Knowledge and its appropriate management contributes to the cause of innovation on the simple logic that a better knowledge brings forth better solutions. This paper examines these both aspects in UK construction industry milieu at some length. We would also discuss the factors which contributed to this movement and the consequential adaptations required by the construction industry to accommodate the design, contractual, administrative, control and co-ordination aspects of various levels of involvement on construction projects. "In most cases, the Department of Finance and Administration’s Bureau of Building serves as the construction program manager for state construction projects in Mississippi. The Bureau of Building represents the interests of the entity and exercises independent oversight of the professional contractor and constructor team (i.e., general contractor and sub-contractors). The Bureau of Building, professional team,

Environmental science assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Environmental science assignment - Essay Example (MacFarlan & Sgherri, 2001) Research has also demonstrated that there is a direct relationship between the extent of HIV prevalence and the severity of reduction in growth of gross domestic product in a country. (Piot et al, 2001) Many children in Botswana are growing up with one parent, and a growing percentage are growing up having lost both parents to AIDS or to concomitant infections. It has been suggested that the increased population of orphans could have a negative effect on biodiversity caused by excessive reliance on hunting and food gathering of children orphaned by AIDS. It also seems extremely likely that the dispensation of human bodies could prove problematic, as any mechanism for caring for the dead could involve contamination of air or groundwater. Further studies must be undertaken to fully understand the ramifications of AIDS infections and deaths on the environmental status of Botswana and other South African countries. 1d) The US and Canada could take many steps t o reduce the prevalence of AIDS in Botswana and in sub-Saharan Africa in general. For one, working to equalize treatment of women would go a long way toward preventing new infections. Supporting programs to educate girls and women would reduce infection, and providing safe spaces for girls and women would prevent infection through rape and other nonconsensual sexual acts. The Stephen Lewis Foundation funds educational programs for young women and girls in an effort to empower them to protect and support themselves. 2) Precautionary Principle â€Å"The precautionary principle sets forth no positive obligation; it simply reminds legislators that they cannot wait for proof of a cause-effect linkage between a given substance, process, or activity and environmental harm before acting to reduce or eliminate the risk of this harm.† (Ellis, 2006) As a justification for public health policy in particular, the precautionary principle has serious drawbacks. Likewise, a company seeking t o introduce a novel substance or process into the environment ought to demonstrate the safety and efficacy of that novelty before being permitted to act. Critics have stacked precautionary practices because they have "produced and promoted ineffectual environmental policies." (Gardiner, 2006). This practice presupposes that human beings fully understand their environment, and that they fully comprehend the ramifications of that. Suppose a process designed to remove chemical pollution from the air was introduced, and that this process involves the use of heavy metals to bind the aforementioned chemical pollution. How would the resultant toxic slurry be disposed of? What about potential harm to individuals working to implement the law? These questions and more would have to be addressed in a satisfactory manner before the process should be legalized, and companies permitted to go forward with implementation plans. Anyone wishing to introduce a new chemical, industrial process, land us e change or any other significant and novel development into any society should absolutely be required to demonstrate not only the safety but the efficacy of that development and transparency of intent before they are permitted to introduce it, even if they are ostensibly acting in the interests of public health. All too often, the needs of large corporations are valued over those of individual human beings. Anyone who stands to make a profit from the introduction or implementation of a novel venture ought to be prohibited from sponsoring

Battle of Antietam in Maryland-1862(bloodiest day in all of recorded Essay

Battle of Antietam in Maryland-1862(bloodiest day in all of recorded American History. 23,000 American deaths...even more than D-Day invasion in World War II) - Essay Example The lesson learnt from the Battle of Antietam has been vivid through the following lines and it is for one and all to comprehend what actually went into the actual battle that took place between the United States of America and the Confederates. The Battle of Antietam is also known by the name of The Battle of Sharpsburg. This battle was fought on the 17th day of September in the year 1862 near Maryland in Sharpsburg which is close to the Maryland Campaign. This indeed marked the initial basis for any kind of war to have taken place on the North American soils after the American Civil War had started. Nearly 23,000 casualties speaks volumes about the war being the bloodiest day in the history of America as it played an indirect yet tactical role in giving President Abraham Lincoln the much needed power to have his ‘Emancipation Proclamation’. Each year, the battle is commemorated at the Antietam National Battlefield. The result of the war without any shadow of a doubt was that it was tactically full of loopholes and it entailed a strategic victory for the union. The main combatants in the war were the USA and the Confederate States of America. The commanders at both ends were George B. McClellan for USA and Robert E. Lee for the Confederates. The USA outnumbered the Confederates by double the men, where the former had 87,000 while the Confederates had only 45,000 to contend with. There were around 12,401 casualties at US end, which included 2,108 men killed and another 9,540 wounded badly. 753 were either captured or missing in the whole scenario. At the end of the Confederates, there were 10,318 casualties which included 1,546 as killed and another 7,752 injured. 1,018 men were either captured or missing. Coming to the original topic at hand and finding out as to why this battle began in the first place, we find out quite a few things

Compare and contrast the four images below Essay

Compare and contrast the four images below - Essay Example The images depicted in each painting manifest the embodiment of masculinity at a time where it was glorified. The perfect aesthetic human qualities were the pinnacle of success. The strong link between each of this image that is made from bronze is the fact that it testaments athleticism in an era where physical strength was huge. Olympics that started in Athens gave birth to these paintings. It is evident that Olympics played a crucial role in western part of Peoloponnese. (â€Å"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History†) For instance, the movie such as 300 depict soldiers as perfectly chiseled and powerful men. Similarly, the correlation of perfection in the sculpture is embodied in every genre. This is perfectly displayed in Figurine of an athlete making an offering. The athlete in this context is accepting the gift as a symbolism of celebration. The second element that these images manifest themselves that is Greek original in bronze by Polykleitos dates back to 430 AD. (â€Å"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History†) The kylix image along with athlete of the diadoumenos type It again manifests the male body of perfection in which aesthetics were crucial. In this particular image, the artist clearly has been extremely creative from every angle and touch. This graphic is a great image as it depicts a typical hand brush that is utilized for cleaning purposes. The brush itself is painted in a very elegant manner with amazing finish. Every bristle is clear and gives the feeling of cleanliness to the audience. Furthermore, the bristles variation in color is a clear depiction of a unique style that the artist has embraced. This is created via bronze and stood in Olympics. Each male body part is symmetry of thorax and pelvis creates a contrast of the body itself. The proportions and the stance is for the audience to appreciate th e sense of potential movement. In art class, my main focus was to observe

Executive summary Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Executive summary - Assignment Example The business would follow an incremental business expansion pattern, towards other areas such as Beverly Hills, Santa Monica, Venice, Inglewood, North Hollywood and Glendale, in the initial phase of expansion. Numerous franchise units would also be opened in these areas, as per the demand and sales forecast. To provide gluten-free breads and desserts of the highest quality, that can satisfy the customer’s taste buds at an affordable price. We are committed to respecting our employees, suppliers, vendors and customers alike, following a strict non - discrimination policy with a strong belief and motto to enhance the health and well being of our community as a whole. ‘Glutopia Gluten-free Desserts and Breads’ is an American enterprise, established to serve the gluten and lactose intolerant population of the nation, for customers of all age groups – young and elderly. The company aims to fill the current gap in the market and constantly innovate newer recipes that promise to enhance nutrition and taste at an attractive and affordable price. The company would be headquartered in Los Angeles and cater to three large cities in close proximity with an efficient logistics and supply chain system. The outlets would be situated in prime localities, with a young customer base. The enterprise would obtain all the necessary licenses and strive to meet the health standards of the regulatory bodies. It is widely acknowledged that proper planning and formal structuring of business processes leads to greater success in the service sector (Gottfridsson (2011). Thus, the entire Business Plan must comprehensively address all major departments, activities, processes and protocols, for the smooth functioning of the business. The company’s growth strategy would be to open franchise units in each of these cities in its initial phase of expansion. The target customer sectors would be individuals with health issues or religious concerns and

CA 4 Medicare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CA 4 Medicare - Essay Example The DRG assigned to the case was 72. Federal Rate for Operating Costs = DRG Relative Weight x [(Labor Related Large Urban Standardized Amount x San Francisco CBSA Wage Index) + Nonlabor Related National Large Urban Standardized Amount] x (1 + IME + DSH). Operating Outlier Threshold = {[Fixed Loss Threshold x ((Labor related portion x San Francisco CBSA Wage Index) + Nonlabor related portion)] x Operating CCR to Total} + Federal Payment with IME and DSH: .. Capital Cost Payment = 0.7502 x $420.65 x 1.03 x 1.3185 x (1 + 0.0243 + 0.0631) = $466.02 Cost Determination: Billed Charges $125,000 Operating Cost to Charge Ratio 0.45 Operating Costs = (Billed Charges x Operating Cost to Charge Ratio) = $125,000 x 0.45 = $56,250 Capital Cost to Charge Ratio 0.06 Capital Costs = (Billed Charges x Capital Cost to Charge Ratio) = ($125,000 x .06)= $7,500 Determination of Outlier Threshold Fixed Loss Threshold $24,485 Operating CCR to Total CCR = (Operating CCR) / (Operating CCR + Capital CCR) = (0.45) / (0.45 + 0.06) = 0.8824 Operating Outlier Threshold = {[Fixed Loss Threshold x ((Labor related portion x San Francisco CBSA Wage Index) + Nonlabor related portion)] x Operating CCR to Total} + Federal Payment with IME and DSH: = {[$24,485 x (0.697 x 1.4974) + 0.303] x 0.8824} + $5,811.22 = $25,554.9987 x 0.8824 + $5,811.22 = $28,360.95 Capital CCR to Total CCR = [Capital CCR) / (Operating CCR + Capital CCR)] = (.06) / (.45 + .06) = 0.1176 Capital Outlier Threshold = (Fixed Loss Threshold x Geographic Adj. Factor x Large Urban Add-On x Capital CCR to Total CCR) + Federal Payment with IME and DSH: = ($24,485 x

Structural equation modelling Research Proposal

Structural equation modelling - Research Proposal Example Skill was not found to impact trust. In addition, trust has a significant positive impact on long-term orientation of the relationship among SMEs. The origins of the structural equation modelling (SEM) have its roots in three disciplines: sociology, psychology and economics. In marketing SEM starts its application in November 1982 in the issue published by the Journal of Marketing Research (Bollen 1989). SEM grows out of and serves purposes similar to multiple regression, but in a more powerful way which takes into account the modeling of interactions, nonlinearities, correlated independents, measurement error, correlated error terms, multiple latent independents each measured by multiple indicators, and one or more latent dependents also each with multiple indicators. SEM may be used as a more powerful alternative to multiple regression, path analysis, factor analysis, time series analysis, and analysis of covariance. That is, these procedures may be seen as special cases of SEM, or, to put it another way, SEM is an extension of the general linear model (GLM) of which multiple regression is a part. In this analysis we apply SEM to examine the influence of reputation, flexibility, information exchange, power and skill on trust and consequently on long-term orientation. ... ng-term orientation is a central theme in marketing currently, it is crucial to know what are the variables that help explain successful long-term relationship building. The analysis is structured as follows. First, we give a brief description of SEM and its importance for marketing research, then we provide the bases for the interrelationship between the variables used in the model; this is followed by description of the design of the analysis and finally, discussion of the result is provided. Description of structural equation modelling and its applicability to the field of marketing SEM is usually viewed as a confirmatory rather than exploratory procedure, using one of three approaches: 1. Strictly confirmatory approach: A model is tested using SEM goodness-of-fit tests to determine if the pattern of variances and covariances in the data is consistent with a structural (path) model specified by the researcher. However as other unexamined models may fit the data as well or better, an accepted model is only a not-disconfirmed model. 2. Alternative models approach: One may test two or more causal models to determine which has the best fit. There are many goodness-of-fit measures, reflecting different considerations, and usually three or four are reported by the researcher. Although desirable in principle, this AM approach runs into the real-world problem that in most specific research topic areas, the researcher does not find in the literature two well-developed alternative models to test. 3. Model development approach: In practice, much SEM research combines confirmatory and exploratory purposes: a model is tested using SEM procedures, found to be deficient, and an alternative model is then tested based on changes suggested by SEM modification indexes. This

Infinite Truth Essay Example for Free

Infinite Truth Essay Since the dawn of philosophical thought there has been a desire to find truth. Now exactly what truth is depends upon whom you ask. Philosophers have been searching for truth in various forms for at least as far back as Aristotle in the first century B. C. all the way up to Carl Hempel in the 20th century A. D. To Aristotle and Plato truth was reality; To Descartes truth was found in God; To Hempel truth was found in explanation. None of these are accurate and yet all of them point toward the same truth. Reality, as defined by Plato and Aristotle, God, as proved be Descartes and ideal explanation as modeled by Hempel, all allude to the same thing. They point out that mankind is a finite being and that truth is only attainable in infinite understanding, an impossibility of man at our current stage of development. Two of the earliest known men to approach the study of reality, or metaphysics were Plato and his student/rival Aristotle. These two inquisitors of reality looked at it from opposite schools of thought. Plato sought after answers by looking at the world with an outside/in point of view. Meaning he used what he perceived in the world to draw conclusions. Aristotle on the other hand approached the world from an inside/out perspective. He applied his thoughts and beliefs to the world. Aristotles beliefs lead to him seeing only one level of reality. He felt there was only one imminent world and that forms existed within particular things. Aristotle held that form had no solitary existence and existed in matter. In order to explain that form is an inherent trait of matter he quotes Antiphon and points out that if you planted a bed and the rotting wood acquired the power of sending up a shoot, it would not be a bed that came up, but wood. (Matthews, pg. 9) To Aristotle the form of the matter was wood and form is the unchanging reality. Platos view of metaphysics shows two realms to our reality: there is the realm of changing, sense-perceptible, becoming things and a realm of forms; eternal, fixed, and perfect. The realm of form was the source of all reality and of all true knowledge. Both Plato and Aristotle use form to describe reality, which to them is truth, as being eternal in nature. So truth is eternal, or infinite in nature, but what of Platos other realm, the realm of perception. Plato, in the republic, gives an in depth explanation of how he views this sense-perceptible realm. He uses his allegory of the cave. In the allegory, Plato compares people, unlearned in his theory of forms, to prisoners chained in a cave. They are unable to turn their heads. All they can see is the wall of the cave and behind them burns a fire. Between the fire and the prisoners there is a parapet, along which puppeteers can walk. The puppeteers, who are behind the prisoners, hold up puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave. The prisoners are unable to see these puppets, the real objects that pass behind them. What the prisoners see and hear are shadows and echoes cast by objects that they do not see. Such prisoners would mistake appearance for reality. They would think the things they see on the wall were real. They would know nothing of the real causes of the shadows. So if the prisoners were to talk to one another about a passing object and called it a doll they would think they are talking about a doll, but they are really talking about a shadow. (Plato, Book VII) Plato portrays in his allegory of the cave a dualistic view of truth. He speaks of the eternal properties of form as Aristotle does, but he also adds his insight into mankinds finitude and inability to perceive the realm of forms completely. The fact that people take as truth what they perceive will plague philosophers into the modern era. Much later, in the 17th century A. D., in his Third Meditation Descartes proves the existence of God. He builds his entire argument upon his proof in the previous meditation that in order for him to think, he must exist. From this single observation, Descartes notices that the idea of his existence is very clear and distinct in his mind; based upon this clarity and the fact that he has just determined his own existence, he deduces a rule. All the things that he sees as very clear and very distinct are all true. He then explains that he knows that he is imperfect due to the fact that he has doubts. Clearly, knowing is more perfect than doubting. From this notion, he realizes that within him lies this idea of a perfect being and that he is incapable of producing this idea alone. Descartes also determines several qualities that God possesses merely by observing himself. Descartes thought that whatever ideas he himself had, if they contained perfections, then God would possess them. If the ideas were in any way imperfect, then God would not possess them. The attributes of God that Descartes came up with are that He is infinite, independent, supremely intelligent, supremely powerful, and which created myself and everything else (Descartes, Pg.45). Descartes then makes the point that he has the idea of infinite describing God. At the same time, Descartes is a finite being. Since it has already been established that this more perfect idea of infiniteness cannot come from the less perfect idea of finiteness, the idea could not have originated from Descartes alone. Therefore, Descartes concludes that God necessarily exists and in so doing is infinite. In his Principles on Philosophy Descartes describes how God is the primary cause of motion; and that he always maintains an equal quantity of it in the universe. (Matthews, pg. 99) To Descartes God is the infinite cause and balance in the universe. Descartes states in the beginning of his proof that all things clear and distinct are true. That is no more accurate than saying that all ideas that are ambiguous to someone are unconditionally untrue. He also states, the existence of God depends on the clarity and distinctness with which we perceive the idea of God. Therefore, if to me, it was not clear and distinct then it would not necessarily be true. But the clarity and distinctness of our thoughts depends on the existence of God. This seems to be a very circular argument and is dependent on the existence of God to prove the existence of God. Again human perception falls short of truth. Do people understand truth more in more modern settings? Over the course of the 20th century Carl Hempel came up with two models of human explanation that he organized as ideals. Bas Van Fraassen puts forth a few problems with the models. The problems he states are; asymmetry, relevance, low probability, and legality. These are not the problems with the models. The real problems come from, as Hempel puts it, the universal laws invoked?can have only been established on the basis of a finite body of evidence, which surely affords no exhaustive verification. (Balashov, pg. 51) He also says that because of this all the laws used in the deductive-nomological method of explanation are all only probabilistic. This means that the only method that Hempel actually explains is his probabilistic method. Since all laws have been shown to be probabilistic the problem falls back to the fact that they been established on the basis of a finite body of evidence and therefore causes an epistemological problem. We cant define to what degree our laws are true. We cant know the probability of these laws on an infinite scale. Hempels models should be taken as models for ideal situations, for if we had the knowledge of infinity then the laws needed would be defined and all of the infinite variables could be accounted for. So true explanation can only be attained with infinite understanding. The search for truth is as old as man himself. The world in which we live seems as true to us as anything. We see, feel, smell and touch what is around us and yet we cannot accept that that is all there is. Man instinctively has a need to organize, order and explain the universe. We have concepts like reality, God and perfection, all of which we cannot completely grasp. We are not perfect and we are not sure what it means to be real, for we know only what we can sense and yet we know our senses can fool us or be wrong. If our senses and thoughts are the only way for us to interpret the universe and they can be fooled then we cannot know what is real. We cannot fully explain anything. And yet we have a need, a desire for a force that is infinite and true. We name that force God. For in God is explanation and truth and the infinite understanding that we lack. God is what we use to explain Platos form and we are the shackled prisoners in a cave of illusion. Work Cited Balashov, Yuri and Rosenberg, Alex. Philosophy of Science: Contemporary Readings. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group. NY  ©2002 Descartes. God and Human Nature: Third Meditation Matthews, Michael. The Scientific Background to Modern Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Co. Indianapolis  ©1989 only probabilistic. This means that the only method that Hempel actually explains is his probabilistic method. Since all laws have been shown to be probabilistic the problem falls back to the fact that they been established on the basis of a finite body of evidence and therefore causes an epistemological problem. We cant define to what degree our laws are true. We cant know the probability of these laws on an infinite scale. Hempels models should be taken as models for ideal situations, for if we had the knowledge of infinity then the laws needed would be defined and all of the infinite variables could be accounted for. So true explanation can only be attained with infinite understanding. The search for truth is as old as man himself. The world in which we live seems as true to us as anything. We see, feel, smell and touch what is around us and yet we cannot accept that that is all there is. Man instinctively has a need to organize, order and explain the universe. We have concepts like reality, God and perfection, all of which we cannot completely grasp. We are not perfect and we are not sure what it means to be real, for we know only what we can sense and yet we know our senses can fool us or be wrong. If our senses and thoughts are the only way for us to interpret the universe and they can be fooled then we cannot know what is real. We cannot fully explain anything. And yet we have a need, a desire for a force that is infinite and true. We name that force God. For in God is explanation and truth and the infinite understanding that we lack. God is what we use to explain Platos form and we are the shackled prisoners in a cave of illusion. Work Cited Balashov, Yuri and Rosenberg, Alex. Philosophy of Science: Contemporary Readings. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group. NY  ©2002 Descartes. God and Human Nature: Third Meditation Matthews, Michael. The Scientific Background to Modern Philosophy. Hackett Publishing Co. Indianapolis  ©1989.

Math and Music Essay Example for Free

Math and Music Essay Math and music are connected in many ways. Math is seen to be as very precise. Music is often seen as a way to express emotion. They are actually both very closely related together. Music is an expression of scales and notes that are strung together to make sound. Math is the subject of numbers and symbols used to write formulas and equations. At its foundation, music and math are related. In this essay, you will show that math and music are related in many ways. They are more closely related then what they are seen to be. Numbers to beats. Pitch to rhythm. Rhythm Math and music’s connection begins with something called rhythm. Music is built on rhythm. Same as how mathematics is based on numbers. Rhythm is made whenever the time range is split into different pieces by some movement or sound. There are many everyday life examples of rhythm the beating of your heart, when waves hit the shore of a beach and the systematic way the traffic light blinks is rhythm. Rhythm measures time so the measure and time signature are created to make rules for a certain piece of music. A piece of music is divided into equal measures. Each measure represents the same amount of time. Each measure gets split into equal shares, or beats. A time signature has two parts. It resembles a fraction. The top number (numerator) is how many beats in each measure. The bottom number (denominator) indicates tells you which note to count. For example, 4/4 is the most common time signature. The four at the top represents how many beats in that measure (4). The four at the bottom indicates which note to count (in this case, a whole note). Beats are in notes. These represent how long to hold the note for. For example, a quarter note equals one beat. How many beats in measure, four. (Numerator) How many beats in measure, four. (Numerator) Which note to count for, whole note. (Denominator) Which note to count for, whole note. (Denominator) Binary Number System Music is related to math with the binary number system. By following this pattern, one can see how each succeeding power (of two) gives a new note to work with (ex: sixteenth notes, thirty-second notes, sixty-fourth notes, one hundred-twenty-eight notes, and so forth). This pattern is also used for rests. A rest that is a whole rest is equal to a whole note. A half rest is equal to a half note. This pattern continues on. In 4/4 time there is one whole note in a measure, this equals 20=1. Two half notes go in a measure. The binary version of this is 21 = 2 half notes per measure. 4 quarter notes in a measure. The binary version of this is 22=4 quarter notes in a measure. 8 eighth notes go in a measure. The binary version of this is 23=8 eighth in each measure. 16 sixteenth notes fall in each measure. The binary version is 24=16 sixteenth notes in a measure. Binary Number System is shown above Adding a ‘dot’ after any note increases the value of the note by one half of the original note value. This also applies to rests. All of these rests and notes can be a combination of many arrangements to make different rhythms. The only condition it has is that there must the same exact number of beats in every single measure. A time signature of 4/4 says that every measure, no matter what notes they contain, must equal four beats. The fractional way of saying this is the sum of the fractions that every individualized note represents, must always equal one. This is because 4/4 simplified is â€Å"one.† Here are a few examples that will and will not work out. Another very common time signature is 3/4. The fractional way of saying this 3/4. The quarter note would still get one beat (due to the fact a four is at the bottom) but this time there would only be three beats in a measure. This basically means the total number of beats must be three. These are some examples that will and won’t work. Math can be used to determine where the second note of the two will fall in relation to the three-note rhythmic cycle. This concept is the least common denominator (LCM). Since the LCM of two and three is six, one would divide the measure into six equal counts to determine where each and every note would fall. The six count measure can be counted as â€Å"one and two and three and.† (In the time signature of 3/4, each and every one of these counts signifies an eighth note, because three quarter notes equal six eighth notes.) In the measure below the first rhythmic cycle has three quarter notes in each measure. Each one is taking up exactly two counts. The first note is counted as â€Å"one and,† the second note would be counted as â€Å"two and,† and finally the third note would be counted as â€Å"three and.† The second rhythmic scale has two dotted quarter notes in every measure. The first dotted quarter note is counted as â€Å"one and two.† While the second dotted quarter notes starts on the ‘and’ of two, and is counted as â€Å"three and.† Give one of these cycles to each of your hands and try to play them all at once, beating on a table or some other surface. It may even help to count aloud while doing this to make sure all the beats are falling on the right count. A much more complicated rhythm is three aainst four. The least common multiple of three and four is twelve so so the measure is divided amongst twelve equal parts. (In this case, each count signifies one sixteenth note, because three quarter notes equals twelve sixteenth notes.) This cycle can be counted as â€Å"one e and a, two e and a, three e and a, four e and a.† While trying to beat out this rhythm as well, one may find that beating out a two against three is far easier then beating out a three against four, though it is quite possible to play both. Every single thing surronding us has a rhythm. Ocean water has a rhythm. Protons and neutrons have rhythm. In every case, however, the rhythm moves the vibrations of the rhythm to the surronding material. Whether it be water, the ground, air, or something else, rhythm transfers vibrations. When rhythms distrupt the medium in a periodic way (repeating at equal times for equal amounts of time) they create something called wave motion. A wave has a high and low point just like an ocean wave has a high point and a low point. The high point in a wave is called the crest. The low point is called the trough. One wave equals one cycle. The first wave is called a transeverse wave. A transverse wave is a wave that lets the particles in the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling. Particles in medium travel this way Particles in medium travel this way Wave travelsthis way! Wave travelsthis way! Attach a rope to something in front of you then give it a little slack. Imagine jerking the rope up and down really quick. Jerk the rope Jerk the rope Wave moves along rope Wave moves along rope The movement of one’s hand sends a wave going horizontally down the rope whilst the rope itself moved up and down. Crest Trough Crest Trough Particles in mediumtravel this way Particles in mediumtravel this way Wave travelsthis way! Wave travelsthis way! Crest Trough Crest Trough When a violin string gets plucked, it works exactly like the rope. The pluck, instead of a jerk, creates the wave. The wave travels along the string horizontally, thus, the air particles around it move ever so little vertically. Particles in mediumtravel this way Particles in mediumtravel this way Wave travelsthis way! Wave travelsthis way! An example of transverese waves are sine waves. Here a few examples. 2 Another type of wave is called a longitudinal wave. In this wave, the particles vibrate parallel to the direction the wave is traveling. A longitudinal wave is sent when you knock over the first dominoe. This is because the dominoes fall in the direction of the wave. Another example of a longitudanal wave is a Slinky  ® toy. Hang a slinky from the ceiling, with a weight attached to it’s end, if you pull on the weight and then let go, the slinky goes up and down many times. The wave and the medium move parallel to each other. Sound waves are also longitudinal. The source of sound waves directs a vibration outwards in the air. At the points of compression, many air molecules crowd together and the pressure gets very high. At it’s point of refraction, the molecules are far apart and the air pressure is low. Sound waves create points of compression and refraction. An example of a transverse wave is when one plucks a violin string. The wave that it produces however is longitudinal. The wave travels through the air, hits your eardrum and lets one hear the note. A direct connection can be seen between two kinds of waves. The crest of a transverse wave has a direct relation to the point of compression in a longitudinal wave. The trough of the transverse wave corresponds to the point of rarefraction in the longitudinal wave. Amplitiude, frequency and wavelengths are charecteristics of a wave. Amplitude (A) is the distance from the top of the crest to where the wave originated from. The wavelegnth (ÃŽ ») is any point on the vibrations to the corresponding next one. It is the distance a wave travels in one cycle. The frequency (f) is the number of waves per second. Frequency is measured in Hertz. One Hertz (Hz) = one vibration/seond. The period (T) is the amount of time it takes for one whole wave or cycle to complete fully. The period and frequency are recipricols of on another. (T=1/f). The loudness is how the listener measures amplitude. The larger the amplitude the louder the loudness. The smaller the amplitude the quieter the loudness. The pitch is the listeners measuremet of frequency. It shows how high or low a sound is. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch. The lower the frequency, the lower the pitch. The water experiment can explain pitch. The more water in the glass the lower the pitch. The less water in the glass, the higher the pitch. In a complicated tone, there is something called a partial. The root tone with the smallest frequency is called the fundamental frequency. In most musical tones, the frequencies are integer multiples. The first one would be f. The second would be 2f. The third would be 3f. This pattern continues. 1st harmonic f=100 Hz 2nd harmonic2f=200 Hz 3rd harmonic3f=300 Hz 4th harmonic4f=400 Hz 1st harmonic f=100 Hz 2nd harmonic2f=200 Hz 3rd harmonic3f=300 Hz 4th harmonic4f=400 Hz If the fundamental frequency is 100 Hz, these would be the frequencies of the first four harmonics: 1st harmonic f=220 Hz 2nd harmonic2f=440 Hz 3rd harmonic3f=660 Hz 4th harmonic4f=880 Hz 1st harmonic f=220 Hz 2nd harmonic2f=440 Hz 3rd harmonic3f=660 Hz 4th harmonic4f=880 Hz If the fundamental frequency is 220 Hz, these would be the frequencies: Handel (1685-1759) used a tuning fork for A with a frequency of 422.5 Hz. By the 1800’s the highest frequency was 461 Hz in America and 455 Hz in Great Britain. Since stringed instruments sound better when tuned higher, the frequency probably would have kept rising. However is 1953 the standard of 440 Hz was agreed tooo. Still, some people use a frequency of 442 or 444Hz. The Piano 5 black keys 7 white keys 5 black keys 7 white keys On the piano keyboard, there are 88 keys. It has a pattern that repeats every 12 keys. The pattern contains 7 white keys and 5 black keys. The white keys are given a letter name A through G. The black keys also get letter names, just with either a flat or sharp symbol after it. For example, the black key between C and D is has two names, C# or Dâ™ ­. The distance between two anearby keys on the piano is called a half step (for example, between C and C# or E and F). Two half steps make a whole step (for example between C and D or E and F#). A sharp raises it a half step meanwhile the flat lowers it half a step. Geometry Math is related to music by geometry. Geometric transformations are like musical transformations. A geometric transformation relocates the figure while keeping the size and shape. The original piece or geometric figure is not changed. The simplest geometric transformation is when the figure slides in a certain direction. The results are the same size, shape and angle measurement. This is called a translation in geometry First place the music notes on the vertices of this triangle. Then move the notes are to the staff. The musical version of the geometric translation appears. Geometric Translation – Repetition The most simple of translation are in â€Å"When the Saints Go Marching In.† The repetitiveness is the theme of this song. The notes are played the same, just in different measures of the music. This means that different measure have the same notes. Another example is in Row, Row, Row your Boat. Geometric translations do not only have to be horizontal. They can be raised or lowered. It can be raised or lowered vertically which means the pitch can be higher or lower. Transposition is a more sophisticated application of translation to music. It involves the movement of an exact sequence of notes to an Geometric Translation – Transposition Transposition is another application of translation in music. It involves the movement of an exact sequence of notes to another place on the scale. The notes are in another key. This is shown in the song â€Å"Yankee Doodle.† Another example of this can be found in â€Å"O Christmas Tree.† Geometric Transposition Reflection When the geometric figure is reflected across a line, the result is a mirror image of the original figure. The size, shape, angle and measurement remain unchanged. Another name for reflection is a â€Å"flip.† There are two types of reflections, one over the x-axis and one over the y-axis. The musical version of this is called retrogression, is shown below. An easy-to-see reflection is in the song â€Å"Raindrops Keep Falling on my Head.† An additional example is shown in the Shaker tune â€Å"Simple Gifts† A geometric reflection across the x-axis is the same except for the fact that the line of reflection is horizontal instead of than vertical. In music, it is called inversion and can take several different forms. One is in harmony: The other form of inversion is in melody and can be shown in Greensleeves. Transposition – Glide Reflection This is the third form of geometric transformation, which is called glide reflection. It is a translation followed by a reflection or a slide and then a flip. You can see inversion in Guantanamera, a popular Spanish song. Rotation A rotation occurs when a geometric figure is rotated 180 degrees around a point. The figure is moved to another location. It is also called a turn. This can also be done by reflecting over both axes, in any order. The Circle of Fifths and The Chromatic Circle The circle of fifths can be plotted from the chromatic scale by using multiplication. The chromatic scale is based on 12 notes which cannot be repeated until all notes are played. Multiply the numbers by 7. The reason we are multiplying by 7 is that there are 7 whole tones. Number the 12 notes of the chromatioc scale from: (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) Showing all of the notes on the chromatic scale: 0=C, 2=D, 4=E, 5=F, 7=G, 9=A, 11=B, 1=C#, 3=D, 6=F#, 8=G#, 10=A# Now multiple the whole row by 7 (0, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77) Then subtract 12 from every number until the final number becomes less then 12: (0, 7, 2, 9, 4, 11, 6, 1, 8, 3, 10, 5) And this is equal too: (C, G, D, A, E, B, Fâ™ ¯, Câ™ ¯, Gâ™ ¯, Dâ™ ¯, Aâ™ ¯, F) Which is the circle of fifths (this is enharmonically related too): (C, G, D, A, E, B, Gâ™ ­, Dâ™ ­, Aâ™ ­, Eâ™ ­, Bâ™ ­, F). This is the chromatic circle with the circle of fifths inside. (Star dodecagarm) This is the chromatic circle with the circle of fifths inside. (Star dodecagarm) Fibonacci Sequence Mozart is thought to be one of the greatest musicians and composers in the world. He used Fibonacci Sequence in some of his piano concertos (a concerto is a musical composition normally composed in three parts or movements.) Fibonacci sequence is the sequence of numbers, in which the sum of the two previous numbers equals that number ex: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13†¦). In the margins of some of his music, he wrote down equations. For example, in Sonata No. 1 in C Major, there are 100 measures in the first movement (A movement is a self-contained part of a composition.) The first section, of the movement, along with the theme, has 32 measures. The last section of the movement has 68 measures. This is perfect division, using natural numbers. This formatting can be seen in the second movement, in turn. Although there is no actual evidence concerning this matter, the perfect divisions of this piece of musis is quite easy to see. Fibonacci sequence goes on infinetly. The first number is 1. Every following number is the sum of the previous two. Adding 1 to nothing would give you 1. The third number would then be 2, the sum of 1 and 1. The fourth number would be 3 (to get this you would add 2+1) and the fifth number would be 5 (to get this you would add 3+2). These are some examples of Fibonn aci numbers: Fibonacci Sequence is everywhere. For example, the Fibonacci sequence gets shown on the piano because of the way the keys are setup. An octave is made up of thirteen keys. Eight of the keys are white and five are black. The black keys are split into groups of two and three. Each scale has eight notes. The scale is based off of the third and fifth tones. Both pitches are whole tones which are two steps away from the first note in the scale (also known as the root). There is also something called the Fibonacci Ratio. A Fibonacci ratio is any Fibonacci number divided by one adjacent in the series. For example, 2/3 is a Fibonacci ratio. So are 5/8 and 8/13. This pattern continues on. The farther along the ratios are placed, the more they have in common. They also become more and more exactly equal to 0.618. The porportion that these ratios show is thought to be, by many, to look appealing to the eye. It is called it the golden porportion. A Hungarian composer named Bà ©la Bartà ³k often used this technique while creating his compositions. The chart below is based on the Fibonacci ratios. The root tone A has a frequency of 440 Hertz. To find high A you multiply the Fibonacci ratio of 2/1 by 440 Hertz to get 880 Hertz. To get the frequency of note C, multiply 3/5 by 440 to get 264 Hertz. Harmonics are based off of Fibonacci ratios. Bibliography http://www.goldennumber.net/music/ http://www.sciencefairadventure.com/ProjectDetail.aspx?ProjectID=150 Math and Music: Harmonious Connections by: Trudi Hammel Garland and Charity Vaughn Kahn

Diabetic With Exertional Dyspnea and Anasarca: Case Study

Diabetic With Exertional Dyspnea and Anasarca: Case Study A fifty year old gentleman, a known diabetic and hypertensive presented with exertional dyspnea and fluid overload. He was detected to have renal failure and associated evidence of cardiac disease, cardiorenal syndrome Type 4. He improved with decongestive therapy and conservative management. In view of the presence of microvascular complications of diabetes, he was diagnosed as diabetic nephropathy stage 5 and initiated on maintenance haemodialysis. The approach to diabetics with renal involvement and the issues in their management is discussed. Case summary A fifty year old gentleman a known diabetic and hypertensive for eight years presented with exertional dyspnea of one month duration. Dyspnoea on exertion had been progressively worsening for one month with orthopnea for one day. He complained of cough accompanied with  ½ a cup per day of mucoid non foul smelling, non blood stained sputum for last one month. He complained of swelling feet with worsening of dyspnoea for last four days. No h/o chest pain, PND, syncope, wheeze or fever. He was a chronic smoker (25 pack yrs) and a reformed alcohol consumer 240 gms/day for 15yrs. What would be your analysis of symptoms? The exertional dyspnea is suggestive of cardiovascular system involvement. In a diabetic, hypertensive and chronic smoker, coronary artery disease or hypertensive heart disease would be common possibilities. Cough with wheeze in a smoker could be COPD in exacerbation with cor pulmonale accounting for the exertional dyspnea and swelling feet, however orthopnea, a sign of left sided cardiac involvement would be uncommon. Additionally, the duration of cough is too short to qualify for COPD. Infective causes of cough like tuberculosis need to be excluded although they cannot account for all symptoms. He also complained of decreased urine output and puffiness of face for last four days. There is no history of altered behaviour, haematuria, smoky urine, nocturia, dysuria, hesitancy or precipitancy. Two years ago patient during evaluation prior to surgery for prolapsed disc was found a creatinine of 1.5mg%. Does the differential diagnosis change in the light of the additional information? The complaints of oliguria and puffiness of face suggests renal failure with fluid overload state. It is common for Type 2 diabetics, especially with accompanying hypertension to present with early renal involvement. Therefore, although the duration of diabetes is only eight years, the cause of renal failure could still be diabetic nephropathy. The presence of renal involvement two years ago is a clue to the chronic nature of renal involvement. An acute on chronic renal failure due to respiratory tract infection could account for the sudden worsening over one month. On examination, pulse 84 / min, regular, BP 190/110 mm Hg, respiratory rate 28/min, thoraco abdominal , JVP 8 cm above sternal angle, Facial puffiness, pallor and pitting edema in upper and lower limbs noted. Trophic skin changes in lower limb were present. No asterixis, Icterus, clubbing, cyanosis or lymphadenopathy seen. Respiratory system examination revealed extensive wheeze and coarse crackles. The heart sounds were normal with no pericardial rub. Liver was enlarged, span 15cm,soft, nontender and ascites was not elicitable. Fundoscopy revealed early nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. Rest of neurological examination was normal. What is your analysis with the given clinical findings? The patient has anasarca with pallor and hypertension. The presence of diabetic retinopathy also suggests microvascular complications have set in. Diabetic nephropathy with fluid overload state can explain most of the signs and symptoms. An associated cardiac disease like coronary artery disease may be present. Diastolic heart failure is common accompaniment that may be contributing the signs of right heart failure. Cardiac asthma can account for the new onset wheeze in a diabetic. Diabetic nephropathy with a possible cardiac pathology, cardiorenal syndrome is the most likely diagnosis. What is cardiorenal syndrome? Cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) is a pathophysiologic entity involving the heart and kidneys where acute or chronic dysfunction of one organ may result in acute or chronic dysfunction of the other. CRS Type 1 reflects an abrupt worsening of cardiac function as is seen in acute cardiogenic shock or in a patient of congestive heart failure who has decompensated leading to acute kidney injury. CRS Type 2 comprises the group of patient with chronic congestive heart failure resulting in progressive chronic renal failure. CRS Type 3 consists of an abrupt worsening of kidney function (e.g., acute renal failure or glomerulonephritis) causing acute cardiac dysfunction (e.g., arrhythmia, ischemia, heart failure). CRS Type 4 refers to a state of chronic kidney disease (e.g., chronic interstitial nephritis, chronic glomerulonephritis) contributing to left ventricular hypertrophy and poor cardiac function. CRS Type 5 reflects a systemic condition like sepsis resulting in simultaneous cardiac and renal dysfunction. Our patient seems to have Cardiorenal syndrome Type 4. The biochemical parameters, ECG and echocardiography will be needed to make a firm diagnosis. Investigations revealed Hb 10.5g/dl, TLC 13300/cumm, DLC P91L7, platelets 2.78lac/cumm, Urine albumin 4+, granular casts+, blood urea 89mg/dL, serum creatinine 5.8mg/dL, serum Na 115mmol/L, serum K 3.1mmol/L, blood sugar fasting 102mg/dL, postprandial 156mg/dL,HbA1C 6.6%, serum bilirubin 0.5mg/dL, calcium 8.4mg/dL, phosphate 3.2mg/dL, iPTH 6.9pg/ml, CKMB 19mg/dL, serum iron 48  µg /dL, serum TIBC 243 µg/dL, transferrin saturation 19.7%, HBsAg negative, Anti HCV Negative, HIV Negative. Ultrasound revealed medical renal Disease with bilateral renal cysts, size of right kidney 8.5 cms left kidney 9.5 cms. Chest radiograph showed cardiomegaly with prominent hilar markings. ECG showed T wave inversion in I, aVL,V4- V6 suggestive of strain pattern and left ventricular hypertrophy by voltage criteria. 2-D ECHO showed concentric LVH, No RWMA, EF 0.65,diastolic dysfunction, trivial TR and no AS/AR. Could this patient have nondiabetic renal disease? Is there an indication for kidney biopsy to confirm renal diagnosis in this patient? In a diabetic with kidney disease, it would be presumed that the proteinuria and azotemia is due to diabetic nephropathy especially if there is associated retinopathy and normal sized kidneys. There is no necessity to perform a kidney biopsy to confirm diabetic nephropathy as it would make no difference in the management. However, a diabetic is also prone to other nondiabetic renal diseases as in the general population that may need histopathological examination and warrant specific therapy. The clues that the renal failure is due to nondiabetic renal disease requiring a biopsy are summarised. Asymmetric kidneys or small sized kidneys are also clues to a nondiabetic renal disease but donot warrant biopsy. Our patient has near normal sized kidneys (right kidney small) with proteinuria and nonproliferative retinopathy, hence there is no requirement to biopsy. Retinopathy is present in 65% of cases of DMType2 with nephropathy, hence absence of retinopathy doesnot rule out nephropathy. Biopsy not indicated when Typical evolution of renal disease Concomitant retinopathy Biopsy should be considered when Renal manifestations are seen atypically (5-8 g/day) persists despite lowering of blood pressure * Only for Type 1 diabetes What are the stages of diabetic nephropathy? What stage is the patient in? The stages of diabetic nephropathy are as summarised in the table. Microalbuminuria is the earliest clinically detectable evidence of onset of nephropathy in a diabetic. About 20-25% of diabetics develop nephropathy in their lifetimes. The time after diagnosis has been validated after followup of Type1 diabetics and doesnot hold true for type 2 diabetics because the the time of onset of diabetes is not clearcut ina given case. It is not uncommon for clinically evident nephropathy to be present when type 2 diabetes is detected. Our patient has established renal failure, hence is in stage 5 diabetic nephropathy. Stage Glomerular filtration Albuminuria Blood pressure Time interval 1 Renal hyperfunction Elevated Absent Normal At diagnosis 2 Clinical latency High normal Absent 3Microalbuminuria Within the normal range 20-200 ÃŽ ¼g/min (30-300 mg/day) Rising within or above the normal range 5-15 years 4 Proteinuria (overt nephropathy) Decreasing 200 ÃŽ ¼g/min (300 mg/day) Increased 10-15 years 5 Renal failure Diminished Massive Increased 15-30 years What is the difference in nephropathy in Type 1 diabetes and type2 diabetes? Type 1 Diabetes with nephropathy Type 2 Diabetes with nephropathy Follows classical stages Hypertension is usually due to renoparenchymal aetiology Retinopathy 90-100 % concordance Non diabetic renal disease rare Less consistent Primary hypertension commoner (metabolic syndrome) Retinopathy 60% concordance Non diabetic renal disease 20-30% Define microalbuminuria. What is the relevance of finding microalbuminuria in a diabetic? Microabuminuria is defined as the presence of 30-300 mg albumin/24 hrs urine collection or 20-200microgm/mt in a timed urine sample in atleast 2/3 samples over 6 months in the absence of fever, infection, physical exercise, uncontrolled blood pressure or sugar, cardiac failure or haematuria. The importance of the finding is that it indicates endothelial dysfunction and is a predictor of diabetic nephropathy in 80% and 40% Type1 and Type2 diabetics. It is also is a predictor of cardiovascular mortality and is strongly associated with insulin resistance and hypertension. In a given patient it is a clue to the clinician to institute aggressive control of blood pressure and hyperglycemia to prevent progression of diabetic nephropathy. The patient was managed with loop diuretics, plain insulin, inhaled bronchodilators, nitroglycerine drip and oxygen therapy. After initial stabilisation, he continued to have raised serum creatinine, hence was initiated on maintenance haemodialysis as a case of diabetic nephropathy with ESRD. What happens to the hyperglycemia with the onset of diabetic nephropathy? What treatment modifications are required to be made for glycemic control? With the onset of nephropathy, the insulin requirement decreases and patient becomes more prone to hypoglycaemia because the half life of insulin is prolonged, renal gluconeogenesis decreases, food intake is decreased, half life of oral hypoglycemics is prolonged, diabetic gastropathy delays gastric emptying and patient frequently vomits food due to uraemia. Infact if a well controlled diabetic develops episodes of unexplained hypoglycaemia, then one needs to look for evidence of nephropathy. Biguanides and long acting sulfonylureas are contraindicated in the presence of renal failure. Glimepride and glipizide may be used if serum creatinine is less than 2mg/dL. With more advanced renal failure, patient should be shifted to insulin therapy. What are the measures that can prevent the progression of diabetic nephropathy? Large randomised control trials like IDNT and RENAAL have provided clear evidence that angiotensin receptor blockers help to prevent progression of diabetic nephropathy. The ADVANCE trial provided similar evidence for angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. A target blood pressure of 130/80 mmof Hg is recommended for diabetics with proteinuria. Intensive treatment of hyperglycemia with tight blood sugar control has shown to reduce the incidence of micovascular complications including nephropatrhy in multiple studies like DCCT, UKPDS and ADVANCE. Cessation of smoking, avoidance of high protein diet and control of hyperlipidemia also seem to be beneficial. Once overt renal failure has set in then tight blood sugar control may not prevent further progression of nephropathy and the risk of hypoglycaemia increases, hence the physician should use discretion in prescribing antidiabetic therapy. What are the issues in dialysis of patients with diabetic nephropathy? Although diabetics with ESRD are candidates for all renal replacement therapy (RRT) options as nondiabetics, there are many factors that make it challenging to provide RRT in a diabetic. Associated coronary artery disease and diastolic dysfunction, high incidence of fistula failure due to atherosclerosed vessels, heparin (given during haemodialysis) related bleed due to associated retinopathy, decreased osmotic gradient and poor clearance in CAPD, poor tolerance to uraemic symptoms, diabetic cystopathy and gastroparesis, preponderance to low turnover bone disease, higher incidence of infections, autonomic neuropathy, elderly age group of patients with attendant social and logistic issues all contribute to poor survival in diabetics compared to nondiabetics. Final diagnosis Diabetic nephropathy in end stage renal disease with Cardiorenal syndrome Type 4 Commentary Diabetic nephropathy has become the commonest cause of chronic kidney disease in both the western world and developing countries. Classical stages of diabetic nephropathy described in Type 1 diabetics may not be evident in the progression of kidney disease associated with Type 2 diabetics. Measures to prevent progression of diabetic nephropathy should be aggressively instituted. Patients of diabetes Type2 with kidney disease additionally have associated cardiac disease making the management of such patients challenging. Cardiorenal syndromes encountered in various situations have been recently described that have improved our understanding of the complex pathophysiology and may open new avenues of treatment in the future. Take home message Diabetic nephropathy is the commonest cause of ESRD and developing countries are likely to face an epidemic in the next two decades. Cardiorenal syndrome (Types1-5) is a recently described pathophysiological condition that has furthered our understanding of the complex interrelation between heart failure and kidney failure in diverse clinical settings. Why Are Informal Networks Important? Why Are Informal Networks Important? Introduction Informal organizations affect decisions within the formal organization but either, are omitted from the formal scheme or are not consistent with it. They consist of interpersonal relationships that are not mandated by the rules of the formal organization but arise spontaneously in order to satisfy individual members needs Ever since the Hawthorne Studies (Mayo, 1949) and the development of the Human Relations school of thought, there has been a widespread tendency towards adopting a less scientific view of organisations. There has also been a relaxation of the assumption of rational behaviour by employees and behaviour that is strictly in tune with the goals of management and the rest of the organisation. As Mayo states: In every department that continues to operate, the workers have, whether aware of it or not, formed themselves into a group with appropriate customs, duties, routines, even rituals; and management succeeds (or fails) in proportion, as it is accepted without reservation by the group as authority and leader (Mayo, 1949) This indicates that individuals in organisations do not stop being social beings while at work. This in turn relates to the very core of the essential question of how to define an organisation. The underlying assumption in this paper will be that organisations are basically a web of coalitions and that coalition building is an important dimension of all organisational life (Morgan, 1997). In consequence, various approaches have been undertaken in order to try and understand organisations. By mainly focusing on communication as the vehicle of social structures, sociologists have described organisations as structures of social interactions in a specific organisational context or culture (White, 1970). Psychologists relaxed and redefined the assumption of rational behaviour in order to understand and describe the needs of individuals in organisations. This has led to a multitude of ways to describe organisational structures, often through metaphors (Morgan, 1997). There has been a shift in the traditional view of the role of the manager and his or her workday (Mintzberg, 1973). By not relying on the normative division of work into planning, organising, coordinating and controlling, Mintzberg suggested that the workday of a manager was much less structured and based on intuition rather than formal decision making processes. What becomes apparent regardless of the method of analysis of the underlying premise is that no organisation can be described or mapped in a satisfactory manner using just formal organisational methods, let alone be managed on that basis. The Structure of Informal Networks It is important to present the concepts associated with intra-organisational social networks. The optimal terminology to describe the informal organisation depends on the purpose of the analysis. There is no one best way to interpret informal networks (Mintzberg, 1989). Informal networks in organisations are likened with the nervous system of a living organism, whereas the bones represent the formal organisation (Krackhardt and Hanson, 1993). Staying with the analogy of the human body, a superficial comparison can be made between the skeleton and the nervous system, and informal/ formal networks within organisations to help understand the function of these networks. The formal organisation is compared to a skeleton which is a strong and rigid frame and the informal organisation is compared to the nervous system which is fragile yet flexible. The skeleton is visible, whereas the nervous system is an entity with no structure without definite subdivisions. Without determined, close obse rvation, it might be difficult to recognise (Han, 1983). Why do Informal Networks Exist? Informal networks exist in every organisation and are an inevitable function within them. Individuals do not stop being social beings when placed in a formal work setting. When highlighting some of the motives for the creation and maintenance of informal networks within organisations, it is important to distinguish between unconscious and conscious reasons for their existence. Affiliation needs: To satisfy the need for belonging to a group, individuals will tend to join networks of friendship and support. As a result, a part of ones individuality is sacrificed to conform to group norms. Identity and self-esteem: Belonging to a group or informal network can develop, enhance and confirm an individuals sense of identity as a result of the personal interaction. Social needs: Traditional formal networks within organisations often offer little room for emotions, feelings or sharing of personal thought, informal networks serve as an agent for structuring and supporting a shared social reality. By relying on this social reality, individuals can reduce uncertainty and stress. Informal groups also help members to compensate for feeling of dissatisfaction with the formal leader, organization or official communication system (Han, 1983). Defence mechanism: In the face of perceived threat or general uncertainty, group cohesion can act as a defence mechanism to reduce (perceived) uncertainty and strengthen each individuals ability to respond to the threat. Risk reduction: Through diluting blame and aggregating praise, a group of workers perceive risk to a lesser extent than they would as individuals. Thus unconscious efforts of individuals to control the conditions of their existence will lead to the creation of informal groups. In addition, often more practical and very clear unambiguous conscious reasons for the creation and development of informal networks also exist. The need to know: One of the primary characteristics of the informal structure within organisations is their communications network, often referred to as the grapevine. Studies have shown grapevine communication to be both fast and surprisingly accurate (Crampton et al., 1998). And in situations when information is critically needed by an individual to perform the task at hand, the grapevine can prove and efficient vehicle for news and information, thus bypassing the formal channels of communication (Mintzberg, 1973). Politics: One of the more conscious reasons for the use of informal networks within organisations is that employees might choose to use informal channels of communication to influence colleagues or superiors in order to gain an advantage in organisational politics. Politics refers to individual or group behaviour, that is informal, ostensibly parochial, typically divisive, and above all, in the technical sense, illegitimate, sanctioned neither by formal authority, accepted ideology, nor certified expertise (though it may exploit any one of these) (Mintzberg, 1983) What is the Informal Organisation? Chester Bernard, a pioneering management theorist who studying organisational behaviour, in the classic The Functions of the Executive, described the informal organisation as any joint personal activity without conscious joint purpose, even though it contributes to joint results. Thus, the informal relationships established between groups of colleagues going for a drink after work on a Friday may actually help in the achievement of reaching organisational goals (Barnard, 1938). More recently the informal organisation has been described as a network of personal and social relations not established or required by the formal organization but arising spontaneously as people associate with one another (Davis and Newstrom, 1985). Thus, informal relationships do not appear on the organisational chart but do include relationships such as chatting together, having lunch or even getting together outside of work hours to socialise together. Informal Group Dynamics at Work Managers are often not aware that within every organisation there are group pressures that influence and regulate employee behaviour, performance and motivation. Informal groups can form their own code of ethics and an unspoken set of standards in establishing acceptable behaviour. Manager needs to be aware of the power and influence informal groups have and that they will almost inevitably form if the opportunity arises. These groups can have an extremely powerful impact on the achievement of organisational effectiveness. However the influence of these groups can be controlled and resisted if handled efficiently. The impact of informal behaviour within the formal organisational setting depends on the norms that the group adheres to. As this is the case it can be surmised that the informal organisation can make the formal organisation either more or less effective depending on how it is managed and controlled and interacts within a company. References BARNARD, C. I. 1938. The functions of the executive, Cambridge, Harvard university press. CRAMPTON, S. M., HODGE, J. W. MISHRA, J. M. 1998. The Informal Communication Network: Factors Influencing Grapevine Activity. Public Personnel Management. DAVIS, K. NEWSTROM, J. 1985. Human Behavior at Work. New York: Mc Graw Hill. HAN, P. E. 1983. The Informal Organization Youve Got to Live With. Supervisory Management 28. KRACKHARDT, D. HANSON, J. R. 1993. Informal networks : the company behind the chart, Harvard Business Review. MAYO, E. 1949. The social problems of an industrial civilization. Routhledge. MINTZBERG, H. 1973. The nature of managerial work, New York ; London, Harper and Row. MINTZBERG, H. 1983. Power in and around organizations, Englewood Cliffs ; London, Prentice-Hall. MINTZBERG, H. 1989. Mintzberg on management : inside our strange world of organizations, New York London, Free Press ; Collier Macmillan. MORGAN, G. 1997. Images of Organization. Thousand Oaks: CA: Sage Publications. SIMON, H. A. 1976. Administrative Behavior. New York: The Free Press. WHITE, H. C. 1970. Chains of Opportunity: System Models of Mobility in Organizations. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.